Publications
All peer reviewed publications are listed below.
Displaying page 12 of 24.
Differences in early childhood risk factors for juvenile-onset and adult-onset depression | 2002
Jaffee, S. R. , Moffitt, T. E. , Caspi,
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Archives of General Psychiatry, 2002, 59(59), 215-222.
Our ref: RO405
BACKGROUND: Family and twin studies suggest that juvenile-onset major depressive disorder (MDD) may be etiologically distinct from adult-onset MDD. This study is the first to distinguish prospectively between juvenile- and adult-onset cases of MDD in a representative birth cohort followed up from childhood into adulthood. METHOD: The study followed a representative birth cohort prospectively from birth to age 26 years. Early childhood risk factors covered the period from birth to age 9 years. Diagnoses of MDD were made according to DSM criteria at 3 points prior to adulthood (ages 11, 13, and 15 years) and 3 points during adulthood (ages 18, 21, and 26 years). Four groups were defined as (1) individuals first diagnosed as having MDD in childhood, but not in adulthood (n = 21); (2) individuals first diagnosed as having MDD in adulthood (n = 314); (3) individuals first diagnosed in childhood whose depression recurred in adulthood by age 26 years (n = 34); and (4) never-depressed individuals (n = 629). RESULTS: The 2 juvenile-onset groups had similar high-risk profiles on the childhood measures. Compared with the adult-depressed group, the juvenile-onset groups experienced more perinatal insults and motor skill deficits, caretaker instability, criminality, and psychopathology in their family-of- origin, and behavioral and socioemotional problems. The adult-onset group's risk profile was similar to that of the never-depressed group with the exception of elevated childhood sexual abuse. CONCLUSIONS: Heterogeneity within groups of psychiatric patients poses problems for theory, research, and treatment. The present study illustrates that the distinction between juvenile vs adult-onset MDD is important for understanding heterogeneity within depression.
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Early growth, menarche and adiposity rebound | 2002
Williams, S.M., Dickson, N.
Lancet, 2002, 359(359), 580-581.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11867115
Our ref: RO404
Adiposity rebound is thought to arise earlier in children with a high body-mass index (BMI) at age 3 years. To test this hypothesis we followed up a birth cohort. Our results indicate that earlier rebound arose in children who were tall at age 3 years, but that timing was not associated with BMI at age 3 years in boys, and arose later in girls with higher BMIs at age 3. Adiposity rebound also arose earlier in children whose parents had high rather than low BMIs. Magnitude of BMI at rebound was associated with height and BMI at age 3, and with parental BMI. There was a correlation between age at rebound and age at menarche, which suggests that timing of rebound is an indicator of physical maturity rather than obesity.
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Males on the life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: follow-up at age 26 | 2002
Moffitt, T.E., Caspi, A., Harrington,
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Development and Psychopathology, 2002, 14(14), 179-206.
Link to full publication »
Our ref: RO403
This article reports a comparison on age-26 outcomes of males who were previously defined in the Dunedin longitudinal study as exhibiting childhood-onset versus adolescent-onset antisocial behavior and matched on adolescent delinquent offending. Previous studies of these groups in childhood and adolescence showed that childhood-onset delinquents had inadequate parenting, neuro-cognitive problems, under-controlled temperament, severe hyperactivity, psychopathic personality traits, and violent behavior. Adolescent-onset delinquents were not distinguished by these features. Here followed to age 26, the childhood-onset delinquents were the most extreme on: psychopathic personality traits, mental-health problems, substance dependence, numbers of children, financial problems, work problems, and drug-related and violent crime, including violence against women and children. The adolescent-onset delinquents at 26 were less extreme but elevated on: impulsivity, mental disorders, substance dependence, financial problems, and property offences. A third group of males who had been aggressive as children but only moderately delinquent as adolescents emerged as low-level chronic offending adults who were anxious, depressed, socially isolated, and had financial and work problems. These findings are consistent with the theory of life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial behavior, but also extend it. Findings recommend intervention with all aggressive children and with all delinquent adolescents, to prevent a variety of maladjustments in adult life.
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Worlds apart: a comparison between physical activities among youth in Glasgow, Scotland and Dunedin, New Zealand | 2002
West, P., Reeder, A.I., Milne,
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Social Science and Medicine, 2002, 54(54), 607-619.
www.elsevier.com/locate/socscimed
Our ref: RO399
Against the background of increasing concern about levels of physical activity among young people, this paper reports the results of a cross-national comparison between two longitudinal studies of young people in Glasgow, Scotland and Dunedin, New Zealand, which used similar methods of assessment at 15 and 18 years of age. The comparison revealed that, on average, young people in Dunedin participated in a greater range of activities, encompassing both organised sports and informal activities such as cycling, and with greater frequency than those in Glasgow at both ages, but particularly so at age 18. The difference was specially marked for females, among whom one in three in Glasgow reported no physical activity at all at age 18. By contrast, in both sexes among those who did participate, much less difference in levels of involvement was observed between the two locations. Of 35 activities, only in respect of soccer, and only for males, did participation and involvement in Glasgow exceed that of Dunedin. Neither climatic factors, natural features of the environment, socio-economic composition, nor different proportions in single-sex/co-educational schooling explain the difference in levels of participation between the two locations. Participation rates in selected physical activities do, however, reflect different opportunity structures in Dunedin and Glasgow, with an advantage accruing to the former in respect of both school and post-school provision. Cultural factors, which underpin such differences, also appear to have an additional influence on participation, most notably in relation to the gender gap in physical activities, much bigger in Glasgow than Dunedin. To redress these differences requires an increase in levels of participation generally, particularly among females, which depends as much on a shift in values about physical activity as on the provision of better resources.
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Physical and psychological correlates of primary headache in young adulthood: A 26 year longitudinal study | 2002
Waldie, K.E., Poulton, R.
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 2002, 72(72), 86-92.
Our ref: RO398
Objectives: To determine if physical and/or psychological risk factors could differentiate between subtypes of primary headache (migraine, tension-type headache (TTH), and coexisting migraine and TTH (combined)) among members of a longitudinal birth cohort study. Methods: At age 26, the headache status of members of the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study (DMHDS) was determined using International Headache Society criteria. Headache history and potential physical and psychological correlates of headache were assessed. These factors included perinatal problems and injuries sustained to age 26; and behavioural, personality, and psychiatric disorders assessed between ages 5 to 21. Results: The 1 year prevalences for migraine, TTH, and combined headache at the age of 26 were 7.2%, 11.1%, and 4.3%, respectively. Migraine was related to maternal headache, anxiety symptoms in childhood, anxiety disorders during adolescence and young adulthood, and the stress reactivity personality trait at the age of 18. TTH was significantly associated with neck or back injury in childhood (before the age of 13). Combined headache was related to maternal headache and anxiety disorder at 18 and 21 only among women with a childhood history of headache. Headache status at the age of 26 was unrelated to a history of perinatal complication, neurological disorder, or mild traumatic head injury. Conclusions: Migraine and TTH seem to be distinct disorders with different developmental characteristics. Combined headache may also have a distinct aetiology.
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Fears born and bred: Toward a more inclusive theory of fear acquisition. REPLY to COMMENTARIES . | 2002
Poulton, R., Menzies, R.G.
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 2002, 40(40), 197-208.
http://www.elsevier.nl/locate/jnlnr/00265
Our ref: RO397
Alleged differences between associative and non-associative perspectives are sometimes more apparent than real. The non-associative model describes a pathway to fear that is complementary to associative pathways. It does not seek to usurp conditioning models as applied to evolutionary-neutral fear. We discuss vexing definitional issues surrounding what qualifies as a conditioning event and what characterises the non-associative pathway. Genetic findings are shown to be consistent with the non-associative model of fear. Following discussion of the relation between stress-diathesis models and the non-associative position we conclude by urging a developmental, life-course approach to the understanding of fear acquisition.
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Non-associative fear acquisition: a review of the evidence from retrospective and longitudinal research. LEAD ARTICLE. | 2002
Poulton, R., Menzies, R.G.
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 2002, 40(40), 127-149.
http://www.elsevier.nl/locate/jnlnr/00265
Our ref: RO396
It is axiomatic that the capacity to experience fear is adaptive, enabling rapid and energetic response to imminent threat or danger. Despite the generally accepted utility of functional fear, the nature of maladaptive fear remains controversial. There is still no consensus about how specific fears and phobias are acquired and modulated. Two major schools of thought are apparent: those suggesting dysfunctional fear arises largely as the result of associative-conditioning processes versus those who favour more biologically-based etiological explanations. In this regard, the non-associative model of fear acquisition postulates the existence of a limited number of innate, evolutionary-relevant fears, while emphasising conditioning modes of onset for evolutionary-neutral fears. Recent retrospective and longitudinal studies have tested predictions from the non-associative model. In general, findings support non-associative hypotheses and are difficult to reconcile with neoconditioning explanations of fear acquisition. These data suggest that four pathways to fear may provide the most parsimonious theory of fear etiology. The theoretical and practical implications of adding a fourth, non-associative path to Rachman's (1977) three 'associative' pathways are discussed. Unresolved issues requiring further investigation are considered.
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Persistence and perceived consequences of cannabis use and dependence among young adults: implications for policy | 2001
Poulton, R., Moffitt, T.E., Harrington,
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New Zealand Medical Journal, 2001, 114(114), 544-547.
Link to full publication »
Our ref: NZ83
Aims. To document patterns of cannabis use and dependence from late-adolescence through to the midtwenties; to describe perceived consequences of cannabis use among young people; and to consider policy implications of these findings. Methods. This was a longitudinal study of the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study birth cohort with repeated measures of cannabis use at ages 18, 21 and 26 years. Results. Twelve month prevalence rates of cannabis use (just over 50%) and dependence (just under 10%) remained stable between age 21 and 26 years, contrary to an expected decline. Cannabis dependence, as distinct from occasional use, was associated with high rates of harder drug use, selling of drugs and drug conviction. Cumulatively, almost 3/4 of our cohort had tried cannabis by age 26. Young people thought the risk of getting caught using cannabis was trivial, and that using cannabis had few negative social consequences. Conclusions. The persistent high rates of cannabis use and dependence among young New Zealand adults raises important issues for policy makers. Current laws are not particularly effective in deterring use. Whereas occasional use does not appear to present a serious problem, cannabis dependence among users is a serious public health issue that warrants immediate action.
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Brain drain or OE? Characteristics of young New Zealanders who leave | 2001
Milne, B.J., Poulton, R., Caspi,
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New Zealand Medical Journal, 2001, 114(114), 450-453.
Our ref: NZ82
Aims. To characterise the emigration patterns of young New Zealanders. Methods. The 980 members of the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study participating in the 'age-26' (1998-1999) assessment provided information about emigration behaviour, qualifications, aspects of physical and mental health and personality. Results. 26% of the sample had moved overseas to live between the ages of 18 and 26, with the United Kingdom and Australia being the most common destinations. Compared to non-emigrants, emigrants had higher IQ scores, were better qualified, leaner and fitter, and had happier and less stress-prone personalities. Based on their planned return date, 63% of emigrants were considered to be on their OE (return in <5 years), 18% were defined as brain-drain emigrants (return in >5 years or never) and 18% were uncertain about their return. Brain-drain emigrants were more likely than OE emigrants to leave for better work opportunities, and they were also more likely to go to Australia. However, there were no differences in terms of qualifications, intelligence and personality between OE and brain-drain emigrants. Conclusions. Most young New Zealanders in this cohort who left for overseas were embarking on their OE. Brain-drain emigrants make up a sizeable minority of emigrants, but appear to possess no more skills than those who plan or choose to return.
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Nicotine dependence and attempts to quit or cut down among young adult smokers | 2001
Reeder, A.I., Williams, S.M., McGee,
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New Zealand Medical Journal, 2001, 114(114), 403-406.
Our ref: NZ81
Aims: To describe tobacco smoking behaviours, attempts to cut down or quit, and estimate the prevalence of DSM-IV nicotine dependence among young adult smokers. To relate these findings to population demand for national Quitline services. Methods: Confidential interviews were conducted during the assessment of the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study birth cohort at age 26 years. Current smokers who had smoked tobacco daily for at least one month during the 12 months before interview were asked questions to identify nicotine dependence, based on DSM-IV criteria. Results: Overall, 40% (n = 386) of the cohort followed up were current smokers who met the 12 month daily smoking criterion, one third of whom fulfilled DSM-IV criteria for nicotine dependence. The mean number of attempts to quit or cut down in the past year was 1.2. Assuming that each attempt represents a potential call to the Quitline, more than 5,500 calls per month might be anticipated from the 25-29 year age group and in excess of 40,000 from the total New Zealand population, 18 years and older. Conclusions: Results indicate that many young adult smokers are potential users of smoking cessation services and many are nicotine dependent. In order to satisfy this reservoir of need and reduce the population burden of ill-health and premature death due to tobacco smoking, resources should continue to be provided to support and enhance tobacco control programmes with proven effectiveness in helping smokers to quit.
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Use of dental services by 26-year-old New Zealanders | 2001
Thomson, W.M.
New Zealand Dental Journal, 2001, 97(97), 44-48.
Our ref: NZ80
The use of dental services and its oral health associations were investigated in a birth cohort of 26-year-olds in order to examine the oral health and health-care effects of the change in entitlement to State assistance for dental care which occurs once New Zealanders turn 18. Fewer than half were routine users, and this proportion was greater among females. More of those who were episodic users at age 26 rated their oral health poorly, and more than one in six had had a tooth extracted since age 18 because of caries. Those who used dental services only when they had a problem not only had greater caries experience by the age of 26, but their caries increment over the previous eight years was also greater. Visiting the dentist for routine check-ups has better long-term oral health consequences than only going when there is a problem.
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Low self-esteem and hopelessness in childhood and suicidal ideation in early adulthood | 2001
McGee, R., Williams, S.M., Nada-Raja,
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Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 2001, 29(29), 281-291.
Our ref: RO409
This study examined the longitudinal relationship between family characteristics in early childhood, self-esteem, hopelessness and thoughts of self-harm in the midchildhood years, and suicidal ideation at ages 18 and 21. Path analysis was used to establish separate models for boys and girls. The results suggested different pathways to later suicidal ideation for boys and girls. For boys, suicidal ideation seemed to have stronger roots in childhood, with significant paths from low self-esteem and hopelessness to early thoughts of self-harm and thence to later ideation. For girls, self-esteem had a small but significant direct effect on later suicidal ideation. The findings provide support for the idea that individual characteristics such as feelings of hopelessness and low self-esteem act as generative mechanisms, linking early childhood family characteristics to suicidal ideation in early adulthood.
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Changes in risky driving behaviour from age 21 to 26 years | 2001
Begg, D.J., Langley, J.D.
Journal of Safety Research, 2001, 32(32), 491-499.
Our ref: RO408
The aim of this study was to determine whether the prevalence of risky driving behaviour changed between the ages 21 and 26 years, among a cohort of young people. Method: This study was part of the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study, which is a longitudinal study of a birth cohort. This study involved examining changes in the prevalence of risky driving behaviour among young adults at ages 21 and 26 years. At both ages, 936 members of the cohort were administered face-to-face interviews, using a structured questionnaire that included items on a range of risky driving and thrill seeking activities. Results: The results showed that risky driving was a predominantly a male activity, but by 26 years of age many had matured out of this behaviour. At the same time, the desire for thrill-seeking increased among the males. Among the females, there were few significant changes between ages 21 and 26 years but at both ages the prevalence of risky driving and thrill-seeking was relatively low. Impact on industry: These results show that the main target population for road safety interventions aimed at reducing risky driving behaviour should be young, male drivers
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The kids are alright: Growth and stability in personality development from adolescence to adulthood | 2001
Roberts, B.W., Caspi, A., Moffitt,
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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2001, 81(81), 670-683.
Our ref: RO402
This longitudinal study provides a comprehensive analysis of continuity and change in personality functioning from age 18 to age 26 in a birth cohort (N = 921) using the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (A. Tellegen, 1982). Data were analyzed using 4 different methods: differential continuity, mean-level change, individual differences in change, and ipsative change. Convergent evidence pointing toward personality continuity, as opposed to change, was found. The personality changes that did take place from adolescence to adulthood reflected growth in the direction of greater maturity; many adolescents became more controlled and socially more confident and less angry and alienated. Consistent with this, greater initial levels of maturity were associated with less personality change over time. The results indicate that the transition from adolescence to young adulthood is marked by continuity of personality and growth toward greater maturity.
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Personality development and the person-situation debate: It's deja vu all over again. Authors' Response. | 2001
Roberts, B.W., Caspi, A.
Psychological Inquiry, 2001, 12(12), 104-109.
Our ref: RO401
Response to commentaries to target article (RO400).
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Personality development across the life course: The argument for change and continuity. Target Article. | 2001
Caspi, A., Roberts, B.W.
Psychological Inquiry, 2001, 12(12), 49-66.
Our ref: RO400
In this article the authors review answers to 5 questions concerning the development of personality across the life course: How early in the life course can we identify characteristics unique to individuals that will show continuity over time? When in the life course is personality fully developed? What life course factors moderate continuity and change in personality? What are the mechanisms that promote continuity in personality? And finally, what are the mechanisms that promote change in personality? Based on the answers to these 5 questions they conclude (a) that there is modest continuity from childhood to adulthood, (b) that personality traits do not become fixed at a certain age in adulthood and retain the possibility of change even into old age, and (c) that with time and age people become more adept at interacting with their environment such that personality consistency increases with age and is more common than change in midlife and old age.
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Psychological disorders and dental anxiety in a young adult population | 2001
Locker, D., Poulton, R., Thomson,
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Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology, 2001, 29(29), 456-463.
Link to full publication »
Our ref: RO395
Objectives. It has been suggested that some individuals who are fearful or anxious about dental treatment have a constitutional vulnerability to anxiety disorders as evidenced by the presence of multiple fears, generalized anxiety or panic disorders. This paper compares the prevalence of psychological disorders among dentally anxious and non-anxious groups drawn from the general population. Methods: Data were obtained as part of a birth cohort study when study members were aged 18 years. They were assessed using the Dental Anxiety Scale (DAS) and the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS). The disorders diagnosed by the DIS were major depressive episode, dysthymia, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, simple phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder, conduct disorder, cannabis and alcohol dependence. Results: Overall, 12.5% of study members had DAS scores of 13 or more and were considered to be dentally anxious. Those who were dentally anxious were more likely than the non-anxious to be diagnosed with one or more psychological disorders (55.0% vs. 42.3%). However, those with DAS scores of 13 or 14 (moderately dentally anxious) were broadly similar to the non-anxious in terms of their psychological profile. This excess prevalence of psychological disorder was largely accounted for by high rates of disorder among those with DAS scores of 15 or more (highly dentally anxious). The highly anxious were more likely than the non-anxious to have a diagnosis of conduct disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, simple phobia or alcohol dependence. Odds ratios ranged from 2.8 to 5.0 after controlling for the effects of gender. The data also suggested that dentally anxious individuals with psychological disorders were more likely to maintain their anxiety over time. Conclusions: In this population of young adults, high rates of psychological disorder were characteristic of those with high levels of dental anxiety. Psychological disorder was related to the maintenance of dental anxiety over time.
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Childrearing antecedents of intergenerational relations in young adulthood: A prospective study | 2001
Belsky, J., Jaffee, S.R., Hsieh,
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Developmental Psychology, 2001, 37(37), 801-813.
Our ref: RO394
Data gathered from mothers on parenting and family climate when almost 1,000 children in the Dunedin, New Zealand, longitudinal study were 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, and 15 years of age were used to predict intergenerational relations between young adult children (age 26) and their middle-aged parents. Analyses focused on distinct developmental epochs revealed greater prediction from the middle-childhood and early-adolescent periods than from the early-childhood years; most indicated that more supportive family environments and child-rearing experiences in the family of origin forecasted more positive and less negative parent-child relationships (in terms of contact, closeness, conflict, reciprocal assistance) in young adulthood, though associations were modest in magnitude. Some evidence indicated that (modestly) deleterious effects on intergenerational relations of experiencing relatively unsupportive child-rearing environments in 1 but not 2 (of 3) developmental periods studied could be offset by relatively supportive family environments in the remaining developmental periods.
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A couples analysis of partner abuse with implications for abuse prevention | 2001
Moffitt, T.E., Robins, R.W., Caspi,
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Criminology & Public Policy, 2001, 1(1), 5-26.
Our ref: RO393
This research used a couples analysis to test five models of partner abuse: (1) perpetrators' characteristics predict their abusive behavior, (2) victims' characteristics predict their victimization, (3) a dyadic process model in which both partners' characteristics independently and jointly predict couples' reciprocal abuse, (4) a traditional model in which men's characteristics alone predict both men's abuse and women's defensive reactions to it, and (5) an interactive model in which one partner's characteristics can moderate the other partner's abuse risk. We studied a representative sample of 360 young-adult couples comprising non-abusive couples, non-clinical abusive couples, and clinical abusive couples. As outcomes, we used measures of abuse perpetration, and as predictors we used partners' scores on negative emotionality, an indicator of violence-prone cognitions and emotions. Results were consistent with models 1, 2, and 3 for both males and females, but not with models 4 or 5. Findings applied to both non-clinical and clinical abusive couples. This study is the first to identify clinical abusive couples without selection bias (9% of the sample, having injury and/or official agency intervention), and to find that in such couples both sexes engage in abuse. Implications for primary prevention are that prevention programs should aim to: (a) target violence-prone cognitions and emotions, (b) reduce abusive behavior by both sexes, and (c) promote victim safety among both sexes. Implications for rehabilitation of already-abusive couples are: (d) treating only men will not reduce risk completely for most couples, and (e) more resources should be invested in researching couples treatments to reduce abuse. If replicated, the findings would suggest the need for policy that encourages development and evaluation of programs to reduce physical abuse by women.
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IL-1 Genotype and adult periodontitis among young New Zealanders | 2001
Thomson, W.M., Edwards, S.J., Dobson-Le,
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Journal of Dental Research, 2001, 80(80), 1700-1703.
Our ref: RO392
Several recent studies have investigated the association between interleukin-1 genotype and periodontitis in clinical samples, where generalizability is an issue. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between adult periodontitis and IL-1 genotype in a population-based sample of 26-year-olds. Based on probing depth (PD) measurements, participants were divided into three disease groups: “Severe” (1+ teeth with 5+mm PD; N = 25), “Moderate” (2+ teeth with 4+mm PD; N = 36), and “Controls” (the remain-der; N = 800). The “periodontitis-associated genotype” (PAG; Kornman et al., 1997) was present in 20.0% of the “Severe” group and in 34.8% of “Controls”, whereas the IL-1A+4845 [1,1]/IL-1B+3953 [2,2] genotype was present in 12.0% and 0.9%, respectively. After controlling for sex, smoking status, and plaque levels, we found that those with IL-1B+3953 [1,1]/IL-1A+4845 [2,2] had 12.3 times the odds of being in the “Severe” group. Analysis of these data suggests that the IL-1A+4845 [1,1]/IL-1B+3953 [2,2] genotype is associated with periodontal disease in this young population. Future periodontal data collections as this cohort ages are required to confirm the predictive value of that genotype.
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The effect of academic self-concept on ADHD and antisocial behaviors in early adolescence | 2001
Pisecco, S., Swank, P., Wristers,
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Journal of Learning Disabilities, 2001, 34(34), 450-461.
Link to full publication »
Our ref: RO391
Using structural equation modeling techniques, we evaluated the effect of academic self-concept (ASC) on the development of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and antisocial behaviors in early adolescence. Participants (n = 445) were recruited from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and development Research study. Eligibility was determined by the presence of complete data for the following variables at the specified time periods: reading at age 7, teacher reports of ADHD and antisocial behaviors at age 7, self-ratings of ASC at ages 9 and 11, and teacher reports of ADHD and antisocial behaviors at age 13. The results indicated that ASC is an important construct that directly contributes to the development of antisocial behaviors rather than to symptoms of ADHD. The results also indicated that children's, early history of behavioral problems and academic performance contribute to the development of a more robust understanding of the impact of ASC on the development of disruptive behaviors in early adolescence.
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Predicting early fatherhood and whether young fathers live with their children: prospective findings and policy reconsiderations | 2001
Jaffee, S. R. , Caspi, A. , Moffitt,
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Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2001, 42(42), 803-815.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11583253
Link to full publication »
Our ref: RO390
This prospective study of a birth cohort addressed three questions. Which individual and family-of-origin characteristics predict the age at which young men make the transition to fatherhood? Do these same characteristics predict how long young men live with their child? Are individual differences in the amount of time fathers spend living with their child associated with the father's psychosocial characteristics in young adulthood? In this unique study, it was found that by age 26, 19% of the 499 study men had become fathers. Individual and family-of- origin characteristics were assessed from birth until age 15 and contemporaneous characteristics were assessed at age 26. Young men who experienced a stressful rearing environment and a history of conduct problems were more likely to become fathers at an early age and to spend less time living with their child. Of those who experienced none of the risk factors, fewer than 10% had become fathers by age 26 compared to more than 60% of those who experienced five risk factors. Fathers who lived apart from their child reported the most social and psychological difficulties in young adulthood. These findings point to individual and family-of-origin characteristics that might be targeted in order to delay fatherhood and increase levels of paternal involvement. However, given their troubled life histories and poor social-psychological adjustment in young adulthood, some absent fathers might have difficulties providing positive parenting and partnering unless policy initiatives to promote intact families also support young fathers.
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Third molar outcomes from age 18 to 26: Findings from a population-based New Zealand longitudinal study | 2001
Kruger, E., Thomson, W.M., Konthasinghe,
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Oral Surgery Oral Medicine Oral Pathology Oral Radiology and Endodontics, 2001, 92(92), 150-155.
Our ref: RO389
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to describe the presence and impaction status of people's third molars at age 18 years, as well as the observed changes in their clinical status between ages 18 and 26 years. Study Design: Eight hundred twenty-one participants in a prospective cohort study were dentally examined at ages 18 and 26 years, and panoramic radiographs were taken at age 18 years but not at 26 years. For each tooth, its radiographic impaction status at age 18 years was compared with the clinical status by age 26 years. RESULTS: Of the 2857 third molars assessed at age 18 years, 92.8% were able to be followed up clinically at age 26 years. Approximately 54.9% of the teeth that were not impacted by age 18 had erupted by 26 years. Of the teeth that were impacted by age 18, 33.7% had fully erupted by age 26, 31.4% had been extracted, and 13.1% remained unerupted. Of the maxillary teeth that were categorized as impacted at age 18 years, 36.2% had fully erupted by age 26, whereas only 25.6% of the mandibular teeth had done so (P <.01). Fewer mandibular teeth than maxillary teeth remained unerupted by the time the patient was 26 years old (27.4% and 41.4%, respectively; P <.01), but there was no significant difference between the jaws in the proportion of impacted teeth at age 18 years that had been extracted by age 26 years (29.6% and 30.3%, respectively). For mesioangularly impacted third molars, 39.3% of maxillary teeth and 20.4% of mandibular teeth had fully erupted by age 26. Of the third molars that were mesioangularly impacted at age 18 years, 39.3% of maxillary teeth and 20.4% of mandibular teeth had fully erupted by age 26 years, whereas almost one-third of each had been extracted. Of the distoangularly impacted third molars, 20.4% of the maxillary teeth and one-third of the mandibular teeth had erupted by age 26, with 21.6% of the maxillary teeth and 31.6% of the mandibular teeth having been extracted. CONCLUSION: Other than horizontally impacted third molars, a substantial proportion of other impaction types do erupt fully, and radiographically apparent impaction in late adolescence should not be sufficient grounds for their prophylactic removal in the absence of other clinical indications.
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Rising incidence and prevalence of herpes simplex type 2 infection in a cohort of 26 year old New Zealanders | 2001
Eberhart-Phillips, J., Dickson, N. , Paul,
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Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2001, 77(77), 353-357.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11588282
Our ref: RO388
OBJECTIVES: To examine changes in the incidence and prevalence of herpes simplex type 2 (HSV-2) infection in a birth cohort of 26 year old New Zealanders in whom seroprevalence had been measured at 3.4% at age 21. METHODS: Sera from 869 cohort members were tested using an indirect IgG enzyme linked immunoassay specific to the HSV-2 glycoprotein G. Serological results were compared with detailed sexual histories. RESULTS: In all, 96 participants (11%) were seropositive for HSV-2, including at least 56 who seroconverted after their 21st birthday. Among those known to be seronegative at age 21, the annual seroconversion rate was 13.5 cases per 1000 per year, compared with 8.1 cases per 1000 per sexually active year before age 21. New infections were associated with female sex and an early age of first intercourse. The average rate of partner change was lower in the cohort after age 21, and was only modestly increased among those who acquired new HSV-2 infections between ages 21 and 26. CONCLUSIONS: HSV-2 seroprevalence has risen sharply in this sexually active cohort, despite a reduction in the overall level of partner change. Increased rates of HSV-2 acquisition after age 21 may be due to a higher prevalence of infection in the pool of potential partners encountered during the third decade of life. Factors related to partner choice may have more influence on the risk of HSV-2 infection than the number of sexual partners alone.
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A longitudinal study of the etiology of separation anxiety | 2001
Poulton, R., Milne, B.J., Craske,
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Behaviour Research and Therapy, 2001, 39(39), 1395-1410.
Our ref: RO387
A longitudinal examination of the relation between separation experiences and the development of separation anxiety at age 3, 11 and 18 years was conducted. Three associative pathways (Rachman, 1977) were assessed. Conditioning events were not related to separation anxiety at age 3. Vicarious learning (modelling) in middle childhood (age 9 years) was the conditioning variable most strongly related to separation anxiety at age 11, accounting for 1.8% of the variance in symptoms. Separation experiences (hospitalisations) before the age of 9 were inversely correlated with separation anxiety at age 18. That is, more overnight hospital stays in childhood were related to less separation anxiety in late adolescence. However, none of these conditioning correlates remained significant predictors of separation anxiety in adjusted regression models. In contrast, certain 'planned' separations in early-mid childhood were associated with lower levels of separation anxiety at later ages. Generally, the findings were consistent with predictions from the non-associative theory of fear acquisition. That vicarious learning processes appeared to modulate, albeit to a minor degree, the expression of separation anxiety during mid-late childhood suggests that there may be critical periods during which some individuals are susceptible to the interactive effects of both associative and non-associative processes. These findings serve to illustrate the complexity of fear acquisition, the relevance of developmental factors and the likely interplay between associative and non-associative processes in the etiology of fear and anxiety.
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The effects of social ties on crime vary by criminal propensity: A life-course model of interdependence | 2001
Wright, B.R., Caspi, A., Moffitt,
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Criminology, 2001, 39(39), 321-351.
Our ref: RO386
Previous studies have explained the transition from criminal propensity in youth to criminal behavior in adulthood with several hypotheses: (1) enduring criminal propensity, (2) unique social causation, and (3) cumulative social disadvantage. In this article we develop an additional hypothesis derived from the life-course concept of interdependence: (4) that the effect of social ties on crime vary as a function of individuals' levels of criminal propensity. Prosocial ties, such as ties to education , should deter criminal behavior most strongly among individuals prone to crime. We term this a social-protection effect. Antisocial ties, such as delinquent peers, should promote criminal behavior most strongly among the same, criminally-prone individuals - a social-amplification effect. We tested these four hypotheses with data from the Dunedin Study. In support of previous hypotheses, low self-control predicted more criminal behavior, prosocial ties predicted less crime, and low self-control predicted weaker social ties that led to more crime. In support of life-course interdependence, low self-control significantly interacted with social ties. Prosocial ties, such as education, employment, family ties, and partnerships deterred crime, and antisocial ties, such as delinquent peers, promoted crime, most strongly among individuals displaying low self-control. Our findings bear upon the generalizability of standard psychological and sociological theories of crime and on practical intervention for youthful offenders.
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Psychological disorder, conditioning experiences and the onset of dental anxiety in early adulthood | 2001
Locker, D., Thomson, W.M., Poulton,
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Journal of Dental Research, 2001, 80(80), 1588-1592.
Our ref: RO385
Most studies examining the origins of dental fear and anxiety have relied on cross-sectional data. These are subject to several problems, such as recall and uncertainty concerning temporal relationships. This paper uses longitudinal data from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study to assess risk factors for the development of dental anxiety in persons between the ages of 18 and 26 years. It was hypothesized that psychological factors would be as important as conditioning experiences in the genesis of dental anxiety over this period. The eight-year incidence of dental anxiety was 16.5%. Five variables entered models predicting onset: multiple fears, symptoms of substance dependence, previous experience of invasive dental treatment, dental visiting pattern, and the extraction of one or more teeth. Separate analyses for those avoiding and those using dental services resulted in different explanatory models. These results indicated that both psychological and conditioning variables contributed to the development of dental anxiety in this population of young adults.
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Behaviour and developmental effects of otitis media with effusion into the teens | 2001
Bennett, K. E. , Haggard, M. P. , Silva,
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Archives of Disease in Childhood, 2001, 85(85), 91-95.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11466180
Our ref: RO384
OBJECTIVE: To examine whether behavioural or cognitive sequelae of otitis media with effusion (OME) continue into late childhood and the early teens (11-18 years). SETTING: Data from a large multipurpose birth cohort study: the Dunedin multidisciplinary health and development study. PARTICIPANTS: Around 1000 children from the study. The main independent variable of interest was otological status of the child up to age 9. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Parent and teacher rated behaviour problems, including antisocial, neurotic, hyperactive, and inattentive behaviours, and tests of academic achievement including intelligence quotient (IQ), reading, and spelling were available in a high proportion of the cohort at ages 11 to 18 years. RESULTS: After adjustments for covariates such as socioeconomic status, hyperactive and inattentive behaviour problems were evident as late as 15 years, and lower IQ associated with OME remained significant to 13 years. The largest effects were observed for deficits in reading ability between 11 and 18 years. CONCLUSIONS: No previous study considering behaviour problems as an outcome has followed children long enough to determine whether some of the early sequelae of OME are still present in the early to late teens. Some developmental sequelae of OME, particularly deficits in reading ability, can persist into late childhood and the early teens.
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Is asthma a risk factor for dental caries? Findings from a cohort study | 2001
Meldrum, A.M., Thomson, W.M., Drummond,
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Caries Research, 2001, 35(35), 235-239.
Our ref: RO383
It has been suggested that asthmatic children may have a higher caries risk, both as a result of their medical condition, and the physical and physiological effects of their pharmacotherapy. By examining the association over time between asthma and caries increment, this study tested the hypothesis that childhood asthma is associated with an increased caries increment. In a longstanding New Zealand cohort study, participants’ long-term asthma histories and the three-year net caries increment between ages 15 and 18 years were examined. Of the 781 who were examined at 15 and 18, 39 participants were consistently taking anti-asthma medication at ages 9, 11, 13 and 15 years (and labelled in this study as “medication-determined asthmatics’, or MDA); 56 were identified as consistent wheezers at ages 9, 11, 13 and 15 years (“wheeze-determined asthmatics”, or WDA); and 36 were members of both groups. A smaller group (N=9) were identified as being very long-term asthmatics (asthma at 5 years of age and at ages 9, 11, 13 and 15 years). Some 206 study members were identified as having no history of asthma, asthma medication or significant wheeze at any time up to and including 18 years. The overall mean net caries increment between ages 15 and 18 years was 2.06 surfaces (sd, 3.76). There were no significant differences in caries increment between the 206 asthma-free participants and any of the asthma groups. This study provides little evidence for an asthma-caries causative relationship.
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Onset of and patterns of change in dental anxiety in adolescence and early adulthood: A birth cohort study | 2001
Locker, D., Thomson, W.M., Poulton,
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Community Dental Health, 2001, 18(18), 99-104.
Our ref: RO382
Objective: To assess the onset of and patterns of change in dental anxiety during adolescence and early adulthood. Design: A birth cohort study of 1,037 individuals born in Queen Mary Hospital, Dunedin, New Zealand between 1 April 1972 and 31 March 1973. Data were collected from these individuals at birth, every two years between the ages of 3 and 15 and at 18, 21and 26 years. Study members Data on dental anxiety were obtained at the 15, 18 and 26-year assessments from 678 study members. Outcomes: Dental anxiety was assessed using the Dental Anxiety Scale. Study members with a score of 13 or over were classified as being dentally anxious. Results: The prevalence of dental anxiety increased from 10.6% at age 15 years to 13.3% at 18 years and 21.1% at 26 years. Of the 31.2% who were anxious at one or more data collection periods, approximately one third were anxious by the age of 15, one third became anxious between 16 and 18 years and one third between 18 and 16 years. High rates of remission were observed. Of 72 study members who were dentally anxious at 15 years, 22% were persistent cases, anxious at all three data collection points; 24% were recurrent cases, anxious at 26 but not anxious at 18 years: and 54% were remitted cases, no longer anxious at 26 years. There were no gender differences in the onset and course of dental anxiety over the developmental periods observed. Conclusions: The period of observation was one of instability with respect to anxiety about dental treatment. Early adulthood in particular appeared to be a life stage during which this population was vulnerable to the onset of dental anxiety. This may be related to dental disease and treatment factors, or changing psychological states during significant life transitions.
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The prevalence and correlates of psychological distress following physical and sexual assault in a young adult cohort | 2001
Feehan, M. , Nada-Raja, S. , Martin,
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Violence and Victims, 2001, 16(16), 49-63.
Link to full publication »
Our ref: RO381
Among a birth cohort of New Zealand's 21-year-olds, 41% experienced physical or sexual assault in the previous 12 months. The level of psychological distress experienced by the 374 victims was determined in interviews assessing for symptoms indicative of posttraumatic stress disorder and ratings of impairment in activities of daily living. Of the 141 women victims, 32.6% were identified as experiencing psychological distress as were 9.9% of the 233 men. For men, bivariate analyses showed psychological distress was significantly associated with factors indicative of increased assault severity, and for women an increased likelihood of distress was associated with the location of assault and the relationship to the assailant. Positive indicators of social support were not significantly associated with less adverse psychological outcomes. However, for both men and women, resisting the assailant was associated with a reduced likelihood of psychological distress. Multivariate analyses revealed that for both women and men, unemployment uniquely predicted variance in distress, over and above that accounted for by characteristics of the assault.
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Paths to panic disorder/agoraphobia: An exploratory analysis from age 3 to 21 in an unselected birth cohort | 2001
Craske, M.G., Poulton, R., Tsao,
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Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2001, 40(40), 556-563.
Our ref: RO380
Objective: To evaluate childhood temperamental traits and early illness experiences in the etiology of adult panic disorder with agoraphobia. Method: Evaluated temperamental and illness experience factors, at ages 3 through 18, as predictors of panic and agoraphobia at ages 18 or 21 in an unselected sample (N = 992). Analyses were conducted with classification trees. Results: Experience with respiratory ill health predicted panic/agoraphobia relative to other anxiety disorders and healthy controls. Also, temperamental emotional reactivity at age 3 predicted panic/agoraphobia in males but did not predict other anxiety disorders, compared with healthy controls. Furthermore, temperament and ill health interacted with gender. Conclusions: Results are discussed in terms of cognitive theories of fear of physical symptoms and biological models of respiratory disturbance for panic/agoraphobia.
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Why are children born to teen mothers at risk for adverse outcomes in young adulthood? Results from a 20-year longitudinal study | 2001
Jaffee, S.R., Caspi, A., Moffitt,
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Development and Psychopathology, 2001, 13(13), 377-397.
Our ref: RO379
This 20-year longitudinal study showed that the young adult offspring of teen mothers are at risk for a range of adverse outcomes including early school leaving, unemployment, early parenthood, and violent offending. We tested how much the effect of teen childbearing on offspring outcomes could be accounted for by social selection (in which a woman’s characteristics that make her an inadequate parent also make her likely to bear children in her teens) versus social influence (in which the consequences of becoming a teen mother also bring harm to her children, apart from any characteristics of her own). The results provided support for both mechanisms. Across outcomes, maternal characteristics and family circumstances together accounted for approximately 39% of the effect of teen childbearing on offspring outcomes. Consistent with a social-selection hypothesis, maternal characteristics accounted for approximately 18% of the effect of teen childbearing on offspring outcomes and consistent with a social-influence hypothesis, family circumstances accounted for 21% of the teen childbearing effect after controlling for maternal characteristics. These results suggest that public policy initiatives should be targeted not only at delaying childbearing in the population, but at supporting individual at-risk mothers and their children.
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Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females | 2001
Moffitt, T.E., Caspi, A.
Development and Psychopathology, 2001, 13(13), 355-375.
Our ref: RO378
This article reports a comparison on childhood risk factors of males and females exhibiting childhood-onset and adolescent-onset antisocial behavior, using data from the Dunedin longitudinal study. Childhood-onset delinquents had childhoods of inadequate parenting, neurocognitive problems, and temperament and behavior problems, whereas adolescent-onset delinquents did not have these pathological backgrounds. Sex comparisons showed a male to female ratio of 10:1 for childhood-onset, but a sex ratio of only 1.5:1 for adolescence-onset delinquency. Showing the same pattern as males, childhood-onset females had high-risk backgrounds, but adolescent-onset females did not. These findings are consistent with core predictions from the taxonomic theory of life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial behavior.
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Determinants of early- versus late-onset dental fear in a longitudinal epidemiological study | 2001
Poulton, R., Waldie, K.E., Thomson,
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Behaviour Research and Therapy, 2001, 39(39), 777-785.
Our ref: RO377
A longitudinal investigation of risk factors for Early- and Late-onset dental fear was conducted. Early-onset dental fear was related to conditioning experiences (indexed via caries level and tooth loss), service use patterns, stress reactive personality and specific beliefs about health professionals. Late-onset dental fear was related to aversive conditioning experiences, irregular service use and an external locus of control. In contrast to recent findings for dental anxiety, personality factors were not strongly related to the onset of dental fear in young adulthood. The key role played by conditioning events in the development of both Early- and Late-onset dental fear was confirmed. Conditioning events appear to play a different role in the development of dental fear versus dental anxiety. This may reflect important, but largely ignored differences between these two closely related constructs. Interventions for Early-onset dental fear should aim to modify both the dental fear and the personality vulnerabilities that may contribute to the development of dental fear early in the life-course.
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The irritable bowel syndrome and psychiatric disorders in the community: Is there a link? | 2001
Talley, N. J., Howell, S., Poulton,
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American Journal of Gastroenterology, 2001, 96(96), 1072-1079.
Link to full publication »
Our ref: RO376
OBJECTIVE: Psychiatric morbidity is high among patients who present to referral centers with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). However, few studies have investigated the relationship between psychiatric disturbance and IBS in community samples. We hypothesized that psychiatric disorders are linked to IBS in the general community, but this is influenced by the criteria used to establish a diagnosis of IBS. METHODS: The data were collected from a birth cohort born in Dunedin (New Zealand) between April 1972 and March 1973. This cohort consisted of 1037 members (52% male), who were assessed at ages 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 18, 21, and 26 yr. GI symptoms were recorded at age 26 yr, using an abbreviated version of the Bowel Symptom Questionnaire; psychiatric history was obtained at ages 18 and 21 yr, using a modified version of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule. RESULTS: The prevalence of IBS was 12.7% according to the Manning criteria and 4.3% according to the Rome II criteria. The IBS was not significantly related to a diagnostic history for psychiatric illness overall. nor to a history of anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, and substance dependence. These results were independent of the IBS criteria used, there was no association between psychiatric history and IBS when IBS was defined according to the Manning criteria (p = 0.11 to 0.98) or the Rome criteria (p = 0.18 to 0.92): Rome and Manning criteria subjects did not significantly differ from each other in terms of psychiatric history (p = 0.16 to 0.89). CONCLUSION: In a cohort of young adults with IBS from New Zealand, IBS appears to not be related to psychiatric disorders.
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Boys with reading disabilities and/or ADHD: Distinctions in Early Childhood | 2001
Pisecco, S., Baker, D.B., Silva,
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Journal of Learning Disabilities, 2001, 34(34), 98-106.
Our ref: RO375
Examined distinctions in the early childhood characteristics of boys with reading disabilities and/or ADHD. A four group mixed design consisting of boys identified at age 11 with reading disabilities only (RD only; N=46), reading disabilities and ADHD (RD/ADHD; N=16), ADHD only (N=20), and a comparison group (N=281) was utilized. Differences on receptive and expressive language and temperament for ages 3 and 5, were investigated. Analyses indicated that the boys from the RD only group performed worse on measures of receptive and expressive language. The results also indicated that boys from the RD/ADHD groups consistently performed worse on measures of receptive language and exhibited more behaviors indicative of an under-controlled temperament. In summary we suggest that reading disabilities and ADHD represent moderately unique disorders, which frequently co-occur and are characterized by distinct developmental pathways.
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Smoking in adolescence as a predictor of early loss of periodontal attachment | 2001
Hashim, R., Thomson, W.M., Pack,
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Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology, 2001, 29(29), 130-135.
Our ref: RO374
Objectives: On the basis of information from studies of older adults, smoking is considered to be an important risk factor for periodontal disease. Examining periodontal loss of attachment among younger adults means a lower contribution from cumulative exposure to other environmental risk factors. The aim of this study was to examine the role of chronic exposure to cigarette smoking as a risk factor for greater prevalence and extent of periodontal loss of attachment among 26-year-old participants in a longstanding prospective cohort study. Methods: Loss of attachment (LOA) was measured at three sites per tooth in two randomly selected contralateral quadrants (one upper, one lower). Cigarette smoking history was obtained at ages 15, 18, 21 and 26, and used to categorise participants as “never-smokers”, “ever-smokers”, “long-term smokers” or “very long-term smokers”. Results: Periodontal data were available for 914 Study members, among whom 33.6%, and, after controlling for sex, self-care and dental visiting, they were nearly three times as likely to have one or more sites with 4+mm LOA. Conclusions: Chronic exposure to smoking is a strong predictor of periodontal disease prevalence in young adults.
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Overweight at age 21: the association with body mass index in childhood and adolescence and parents' body mass index. A cohort study of New Zealanders born in 1972-73 | 2001
Williams, S.M.
International Journal of Obesity, 2001, 25(25), 158-163.
Our ref: RO373
Background: Obesity is an increasing problem so understanding the association between childhood and adolescent measures of body mass index (BMI) and being overweight at age 21 has implications for treatment or strategies to reduce its prevalence. Objective: To examine the association between measures of BMI in childhood and adolescence and parents' BMI and being overweight at age 21. Design: The study was based on a birth cohort born in Dunedin, New Zealand, in 1972-73. Results: BMI tracked from childhood to early adulthood. The point on the BMI distribution where the probability of being overweight at age 21 was 0.5 was close to the 75th centile for boys throughout childhood and adolescence. It was rather higher for girls in childhood but similar in adolescence. Boys with a BMI above the 75th centile at age 7 were more than 4.0 times more likely to be overweight at age 21 than those with a BMI below the median. The relative risk for girls was 3.2. By age 15 this increased to 9.8 for males and 6.8 for females. Having overweight parents, particularly a mother, increased the likelihood of being overweight. Only 40% of those who were overweight at age 21 could be identified by age 7 and 25% were not identified until they were at least 15. Conclusion: Although a high BMI in childhood predicts being overweight at age 21, many of those who were overweight at age 21 had a BMI below the 75th centile or even the median in childhood and early adolescence. Population strategies, complemented by an individual approach for those above the 75th centile, are needed to reduce the average BMI of the population.
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Childhood headache, stress in adolescence, and primary headache in young adulthood: A longitudinal cohort study | 2001
Waldie, K.E.
Headache, 2001, 41(41), 1-10.
Our ref: RO369
Objectives. To determine the association between childhood history of headache, adolescent stress, and headache syndromes (determined by International Headache Society criteria) in young adulthood. Background. The association between stress and tension-type headache has recently been challenged. Little is known about stress and other headache subtypes, particularly among young people from the general population. Design. Members of the longitudinal Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study participated in this study. Study members were asked about headache characteristics/symptoms at age 26 (96% of the living cohort) and historical records were examined to ascertain headache history (< 12 yrs) and the reporting of stressful life events at age 15. Results. Study members with childhood headache were significantly more likely to report adolescent stress than those without headache. High intensity stress during mid-adolescence increased the likelihood of migraine diagnosis. In the case of combined headache (individuals with migraine attacks as well as tension-type headache) this relation held only for those with a history of headache. Stress associated with bodily changes during mid-adolescence was the only significant predictor of tension-type headache. Conclusions. Childhood headaches are related to the appraisal of life events reported during mid-adolescence. Childhood headaches also appear to confer a specific risk for the development of combined headache. There was little evidence for a prospective relation between stress in mid-adolescence and tension-type headache in young adulthood, supporting claims that proximal (rather than distal) stress is associated with this disorder.
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